Frequently Asked Questions
Energy policy background
This item will be updated to reflect FAQs in transportation, clean electricity, coal, energy efficiency, and global warming solutions; check back for updates.
For more information, contact Rick Fuentes (fuentes@fresh-energy.org or 651.726.7572) or Elena Velkov (velkov@fresh-energy.org or 651.726.7576) of the Media Center.
GLOBAL WARMING SOLUTIONS
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
CLEAN ENERGY
TRANSPORTATION
GLOBAL WARMING SOLUTIONS
How does global warming occur?
The Earth’s atmosphere is one of the major parts in an overall system that creates and sustains our climate. This can be described as average weather over time. Gases and particles in the atmosphere can contribute to both a warming and a cooling of our climate, depending on the type. Over the past several centuries, certain gases have accumulated in the atmosphere, including carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides, and others. These gases intensify the atmosphere’s ability to trap heat by preventing the solar radiation that the Earth absorbs from the sun from escaping into space. It’s much the same process that occurs in a greenhouse, except our Earth “greenhouse” is getting hotter and hotter over time.
How do we know that global warming is mainly caused by humans?
The timing of the sharp increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and the current warming trend coincide exactly with the Industrial Revolution. During industrialization, humans began to burn and consume large quantities of fossil fuels, which in turn released huge amounts of stored carbon into the atmosphere as CO2. The associated population growth and other demographic changes altered the use of land as well, which resulted in additional greenhouse gas emissions. There is a direct correlation between this human behavior and the increased concentrations of these greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The increased concentration of these gases causes global warming.
What are the major sources of global warming pollution?
Burning fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas to generate electricity and to drive vehicles is the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions. Clearing and burning tropical rainforests, other forests, prairies, savannahs, and other grasslands for agriculture or development is another major source of global warming pollution. There are many other sources, including the release of methane (a more potent greenhouse gas) from landfills; certain agricultural practices, including nitrogen fertilizer application and livestock production; cement production; and various industrial or chemical processes.
What’s the difference between global warming and climate change?
Semantics. They are two phrases for the same thing.
If global warming raises the Earth’s temperature by only 2 – 5 degrees, is it a big deal? It is a big deal, and there will be major consequences even with a 2 degree increase. It is important to note that a projected increase, such as 2 degrees, is an average increase for the whole planet. Some locations will experience much higher increases in temperature than other areas. In general, all land areas (especially in northern latitudes) will see higher increases in temperature than the oceans (such as the South Pacific). This means that population centers and agricultural areas will experience the some of the hottest average temperature increases. The Arctic will also see high temperature increases, which will cause significant ice melting and sea-level rises.
What may be worse, however, is that many parts of our planet and our overall climate are very sensitive to small changes in average temperatures. Temperature increases alter the functioning of our climate system in ways that lead to more weather extremes. The climate and weather predictions include more hot extremes, heat waves, heavy rain, precipitation, floods, droughts and severe storms. These predictions translate to significant impacts on people and ecosystems, such as the spread of pests and diseases; rising sea levels and coastal damage; increasing extinction of species; a lack of water in many areas; a loss of food production in many areas; and an increase in mortality and health problems associated with these changes. To give some perspective on the sensitivity of our climate system, a 5-degree increase in average temperatures would be 2 degrees more than the difference between our current temperatures and the last ice age.
It is also worth noting that many reports use Celsius to predict temperature increases. Using the more familiar Fahrenheit system, the range of projected increases would be between 2 degrees and 11.5 degrees.
How can global warming cause droughts, hurricanes and floods?
In general, global warming is predicted to make weather more extreme in all directions, and models predict very different impacts in different places. The increase in average temperatures, coupled with the higher temperature increases in areas like land masses and the Arctic, will melt glaciers, snow-covered mountains and polar icecaps. Ice and snow melt will increase the amount of water in the atmosphere, while the heating will increase the amount of energy in the overall climate system. More heat energy and more water means stronger storms and heavier rains in many areas. This is predicted to increase the occurrence and severity of flooding, as well as cause more storm damage generally. Models also predict land areas will experience the highest temperature increases, which will cause heat waves and increase the occurrence and severity of droughts on land.
At first, it might seem inconsistent to have sea levels rise while inland waters drop, but it isn't. Global warming threatens to change our current water cycles and flows, so that less water stays over land areas in the form of ice and snow, and more accumulates in our seas and oceans.
What is cap and trade?
In a cap and trade program, a cap is set that limits the overall amount of global warming pollution that can be emitted in a given year. The overall amount of allowed pollution is divided up into a number of permits. Individual sources of pollution, such as utilities with coal plants, large factories, or oil refineries, must have permits to emit their global warming pollution. If such sources find ways to reduce their pollution, such as through technological innovation, then they can trade extra permits with other sources that may not have made such innovations. In this way, market forces are part of the program. Over time, the cap is lowered, so the total amount of global warming pollution will decline. As the cap is lowered, each source will need to reduce its emissions, as fewer and fewer permits are available. Sources that reduce faster than required may have permits to trade, which again creates market-based incentives to help spur technological innovations.
How does a cap and auction system work?
In order to make a cap and trade program work, the regulator (government) will set a cap, or limit, on the amount of global warming pollution that can be emitted in a given period of time, such as a year. The regulator will then divide this amount into a number of individual permits (these can also be called credits or allowances), each of which represents a unit of pollution (usually a ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent of other greenhouse gases). The regulator will distribute the permits to the sources of pollution, such as a utility with a coal plant. When a source emits a unit of pollution, it uses up a permit. The source can only emit pollution if it has a permit to do so.
There are different ways to distribute permits to sources, including an auction. When permits are distributed through an auction, sources of emissions will determine the value by bidding for them, and sources will need to purchase permits according to their level of emissions. If they have done a good job of reducing emissions already, they will be rewarded by needing to purchase fewer allowances at the auction. If their emissions are high, they will need to purchase more.
The sources of emissions can trade the permits, which allow sources to buy and sell permits as needed to achieve compliance by all sources at the lowest cost.
Most utilities favor a system where the government gives the allowances to the sources for free based on their historic emission levels. This has the opposite effect of rewarding those sources who have high emission levels. Another major benefit of the auction system is that it raises revenues, which can be returned to the public to reduce their costs for energy or applied to goods and services to offset costs that the pollution sources have passed on to the consumer. The auction revenues can also be reinvested to further reduce global warming pollution, help workers transitions to a cleaner energy economy, fund research and development into the technologies that will bring the cost of compliance down, or many other worthwhile goals related to the overall reduction of emissions. Some investments, such as energy efficiency and conservation, would have the effect of both giving consumers financial relief by lowering their energy bills and at the same time, reducing greenhouse gas emissions at a lower overall cost.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
What are the biggest electricity and natural gas users in our lives?
In the average home, the biggest electricity and natural gas users are heating and air conditioning, followed by appliances. In most homes, the refrigerator is the biggest electricity-using appliance.
Where can I find good energy saving tips?
A number of low or no-cost energy saving tips are available on the following sites:
What is a CFL?
A “CFL” is a compact fluorescent light bulb. CFLs use up to 75 percent less electricity to produce the same amount of light as an old-fashioned incandescent light bulb. In addition, CFLs last up to 10 times longer than incandescent light bulbs.
How do I recycle used CFLs?
Under many state laws, it is illegal to throw CFLs in the trash. Menards and Home Depot stores in Minnesota offer free CFL recycling. You can also contact your local household hazardous waste facility to find out if they recycle CFLs.
Don’t CFLs have mercury in them?
Like many electronic products, CFLs do contain a small amount of mercury, usually between 1.4 and 4 milligrams per bulb. However, CFLs still help reduce the overall amount of mercury in our environment. That’s because producing electricity by burning coal releases mercury pollution. Because CFLs use so little electricity, they reduce the amount of mercury released to create electricity. This more than makes up for the small amount of mercury contained within the CFL bulb. In comparison, the average watch battery contains 5 times more mercury than a CFL.
How do I dispose of a broken CFL?
Because CFLs do contain a small amount of mercury, they should be carefully cleaned up when they break. See the EPA’s fact sheet on cleaning up a broken CFL.
How are building codes related to energy efficiency?
Nationwide, buildings use 40 percent of our total energy consumption and 70 percent of our electricity. And, the useful life of a building is often 50 years or longer. Consequently, strong, energy-efficient building codes ensure savings for years to come.
CLEAN ENERGY
What is considered renewable energy?
Renewable energy is that which comes from the natural cycles of the earth. Solar, wind, biofuel, geothermal and hydroelectric are typical examples of renewable energy.
What are the advantages of renewable energy?
One advantage is that renewable energy has long-term price stability; it cannot be depleted like oil, gas and coal. Also, it produces low or zero carbon dioxide emissions. This will be hedge against future costs of CO2 regulations (such as carbon taxes or programs to “cap” carbon emissions). Renewable energy innovation offers great opportunity for business growth and developing economies.
What is biomass?
Biomass is just another word for plant matter. Any material that is produced by the plant growth can be called biomass. This can include food crops, but more often, it is used to denote woody materials, grasses, stalks and stems. The word “biomass” is most often used when discussing plant-based electricity or inputs to new and better biofuels, such as cellulosic ethanol.
How do wind turbines generate electricity?
Wind electricity is very similar to many kinds of electric generation. Nuclear, coal and hydropower all produce electricity by spinning a turbine. A spinning turbine is able to convert energy into electricity. With nuclear and coal power, water is boiled, and the steam spins the turbine. With hydropower, forceful water spins the turbine. With wind power, blades harness the power of the wind to turn the turbine.
With wind energy, what happens when the wind isn’t blowing?
Wind energy works best when it’s integrated into an electric grid where transmission lines make strong paths between various wind farms and other electricity sources. Reliability is good because the wind is almost always blowing somewhere, and other generating stations are on call when the wind is not blowing. Numerous studies have proven there is a cost to having these strong connections and back-up systems, but the extra cost of high-reliability is very reasonable.
What are transmission lines, and why are they important to wind energy?
Transmission lines are wires that towers support, and they carry electricity across distances. Transmission is the way that energy gets to market. Think of it as the road to market for the product. Often, the best wind regimes are remote, and the highest electricity demand is urban. So, transmission is needed to connect the electric generation to the customer.
Are there any downsides to wind energy?
Although many communities have actively sought the economic opportunity offered by wind farms, some controversies have developed around their siting. People have occasionally raised questions about their aesthetic or visual impact. The most famous is the ongoing debate about the Cape Wind project off the shore of Cape Cod, Massachusetts.
How does solar energy generate electricity?
Unlike almost all other forms of electric generation, solar energy does not spin a turbine. It converts sunlight directly to electric energy, referred to as “photovoltaic energy” or “PV.” PV relies on special materials to convert sunlight that falls upon solar panels to electricity. Solar electricity is still several times more expensive than the market price of new electricity generation, such as wind power or coal. Enormous innovation and competition by industries can drive down cost and drive up efficiency.
With solar energy, what happens when the sun isn’t shining?
Like wind energy, solar energy can be integrated into large electric grids to provide reliability. Some solar applications are “off-grid.” In this case, batteries store electricity when the sun is shining, to be used at night and on overcast days.
Is solar energy only used to make electricity?
No. Different kinds of solar energy can heat water and air. This is typically referred to as “solar thermal.” It is used to heat domestic water and pools, and it provides space heat to homes and businesses. Especially as natural gas prices rise and show extreme volatility, this kind of solar energy becomes economic.
Is solar energy ever going to be an important fraction of our energy sources?
Some studies predicts that solar energy will provide half of the world’s energy by 2050. However, the price has to come down dramatically. By some estimates, solar energy is still more than five times more expensive than other sources of new electricity. This is a chicken-egg problem because the only way for prices to come down dramatically is if sales go up dramatically. Because it is a manufactured commodity, the economies of mass production determine its price.
How much electricity can be produced using renewable energy?
Theoretically, all of it but not very soon. There is a growing opinion that within 10 to 20 years, we can get up to 1/3 of our electricity from renewables. Xcel Energy, the nation’s 4th largest utility, will have 30 percent renewables serving Minnesota by 2020. In 2007, nine Midwestern governors called for 30 percent of the region’s electricity to come from renewables. However, to get beyond the 30 - 50 percent threshold, there will need to be more innovation in advanced technologies, such as energy storage.
What is a megawatt of energy? Kilowatt? How does this differ from megawatt-hours and kilowatt-hours?
One of the most common mistakes is to mix up watts and watt-hours (or kilowatts and kilowatt-hours or megawatts and megawatt-hours). A 1,000-megawatt power plant is described in megawatts, even if it is producing no energy. In other words, watts, kilowatts and megawatts are terms that describe power. Power is the ability or capacity to produce energy. So, sometimes electric power is described as electric capacity or electric generation capacity.
If the power plant runs 10 hours, it produces 10,000 megawatt-hours. In other words, watt-hours, kilowatt-hours and megawatt-hours are terms that describe energy. Energy is the ability to do work.
Reporters and advocates should not use the words power and energy interchangeably. Nor should they use the words kilowatts and kilowatt-hours interchangeably.
TRANSPORTATION
How much does transportation contribute to global warming?
Transportation directly contributed 27.9 percent of U.S. global warming pollution in 2006, according to the U.S. EPA. In RE-AMP states, the transportation contribution in 2005 ranged from 23.5 percent in Wisconsin up to 32.4 percent in South Dakota, according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration. These figures do not include such indirect contributions as vehicle manufacturing, roadway construction and reduction of natural space to accommodate roads.
Pollution from transportation has been increasing more rapidly than have emissions from other sectors, as demand for travel has grown while vehicle efficiency has remained about constant. In 1990, transportation contributed 25.1 percent of the U.S. total, according to EPA.
How can we reduce global warming pollution from transportation?
In general there are three approaches:
1) Improving the efficiency of vehicles, so that they burn less fuel per mile,
2) Reducing the carbon dioxide-producing effect of fuels, and
3) Reducing the miles people must drive to do the things they want to do.
Why do Midwesterners drive so much more now than they did just a few years ago?
Traffic has grown rapidly in the region and the nation in the last generation. In 1970, there were 6,540 vehicle-miles traveled for every American; in 2005, the figure was 10,101, according to the U.S. Bureau of Transportation Statistics.
Part of the reason for the increase is economic. As the economy grew, people both had more income for transportation, and they consumed more goods, driving up the demand for freight hauling. But another reason is the increasingly sprawling layout of cities and suburbs, which makes walking and transit less attractive and forces people to make more and longer trips in their cars and trucks.
What are the impacts of increased driving?
First, increased driving affects air quality. From 1990 to 2006, U.S. global warming pollution from transportation grew by 28 percent. In addition, traffic congestion is a drag on the economy; the increase in paved area contributes to water pollution and urban-warming effects; increasing need for cars is a financial burden for the poor and middle class; and growing transportation demand helps drive up fuel prices.
What ways are being considered to reduce demand for motor-vehicle travel?
Here are a few:
1. Get prices right. Right now, pricing usually does not drive down consumption. For example, most parking is free, even though it is costly for cities, merchants and others to provide. If people paid parking directly, instead of through taxes or prices for goods consumed, they would have an incentive to use less. The same goes for insurance. People pay a fixed rate for insurance each month or year. If they paid by the mile instead, they would have an incentive to drive less.
2. Plan better. Sprawling land use causes driving to increase, but planners generally don’t review land-use changes and the transportation system at the same time. Planning that encourages more compact and mixed-use development will help rein in the growth in driving.
3. Provide more choices. Without sidewalks, bike lanes or transit, people will be forced to drive even if they don’t want to. With “complete streets,” some people will choose other modes all the time, and others will do so some of the time.
How can citizens get involved in making transportation more sustainable?
The transportation system is complex, and policy is often masked in jargon, so influencing decisions can be daunting. But many people and institutions have been successful in helping to push for sustainability.
Here are some ways concerned individuals can act:
1. Find out what groups are working on transportation policy in your state and region, and get involved with them by volunteering, becoming a member, making a donation, or simply reading their work.
2. At the national level, check out the materials offered by the Surface Transportation Policy Project. There will probably be a new federal transportation bill in 2009, and STPP and other groups will be following that legislation and providing information for citizens.
3. For a primer on the transportation planning process, read this publication by the U.S. Department of Transportation.
What is a low-carbon fuel standard (LCFS)?
Global warming pollution is emitted when fuels are produced, transported, sold and used in vehicles. A low-carbon fuel standard, or LCFS, would address all these “life-cycle” emissions and set limits for them. Such a standard might spur the development of biofuels such as cellulosic ethanol, which have relatively low life-cycle emissions. An LCFS might also combat the use of petroleum from tar sands because it is energy-intensive to produce and has a higher life-cycle emission rate than does conventional petroleum
What are CAFE standards?
“CAFE” stands for “corporate average fuel economy,” a measure of the gas mileage of a manufacturers’ total fleet of vehicles sold in the United States. The standard was established by Congress in 1975 and initially spurred manufacturers to produce more efficient vehicles. More recently, the effect of the standard was undercut by buyers’ move toward trucks and SUVs, which have lower CAFE standards than do cars and also by the federal government’s failure to increase the standards substantially over time. In 2007, the Energy Independence and Security Act strengthened the standards significantly, requiring fleetwide averages of 35 mpg by 2020.
Are there any negative effects of CAFE standards?
Increasing vehicle efficiency reduces global warming pollution; vehicles burn less fuel and produce less carbon dioxide per mile of travel. However, this positive effect is partially offset by a “rebound effect.” Because better efficiency makes driving cheaper, motorists may increase their travel. One assessment finds that for every 10 percent increase in efficiency, travel would increase 1 to 2 percent, according to a National Research Council report.
What are California car (LEV-Pavley) standards, and how do they differ from CAFE?
Because California had its own vehicle pollution limits before the federal government did, Congress has always granted the state the ability to set standards that were stricter than those for the United States as a whole. Other states may adopt California’s rules as well.
California’s current suite of vehicle emissions rules are called “California car” or “LEV (low emission vehicle)-Pavley.” The LEV portion of the regulations addresses conventional pollutants, while the Pavley portion (named for a legislator who sponsored the bill establishing the rules) limits global warming emissions. The most likely way to reduce emissions is to boost vehicle efficiency, so Pavley might have similar effects as CAFE, but it would likely be stricter. About a dozen other states have adopted the standard. But the U.S. EPA, which must review California’s emission standards for compliance with Clean Air Act requirements, so far has refused to let the Pavley take effect, and the matter is in the courts.
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